Taking Soundings with a Lead Line

Soundings (measuring the depth of water) are taken when going into or out of port or approaching an anchorage, shoal, or rock. The usual method of taking soundings is by the depth sounder, although the hand lead must always be available. The hand lead consists of a narrow block of lead, weighing from 7 to 14 pounds, which is attached to a marked line. With the ship making 12 knots, a good leadsman can get reliable soundings down to 7 fathoms. At slower speeds, of course, the lead has time to sink even deeper before the ship moves up to it. The leadline may also be used for determining the direction in which a ship practically dead in the water is moving. Direction of movement is found by placing the lead on the bottom, directly below the leadsman, and noting the direction of the motion of the ship as shown by the change of direction of the leadline from the up and down.

Before heaving, the leadsman takes station in the chains, which usually are platforms projecting over each side at the after end of the forecastle. The lead is then lowered over the side and is supported in the heaving hand by a wooden toggle, inserted in the leadline about 2 fathoms from the lead. The spare line is coiled in the other hand, free for running. To make the heave, start by swinging the lead in a fore-and-aft direction outboard of the chains, in order to gain momentum, then swing the lead in a complete circle. When the force is great enough, let go the lead as it swings forward and at a point about level with the deck. This action makes it fly forward on a line a little above and practically parallel to the deck.

As the ship moves ahead, heave in the spare line rapidly. The marker should be read when the lead is on the bottom and the line hauled just taut, up and down. Ability to heave the lead can be acquired only by practice. It is necessary to practice in both chains, because the right hand is used for heaving from the starboard chain, the left hand for heaving from the port chain.
A good heave has no value unless the depth can be read correctly and quickly. Learn the markings of the line, which are as follows:

1. At 2 fathoms, 2 strips of leather.
2. AU fathoms, 3 strips of leather.
3. At 5 fathoms, a white rag.
4. At 7 fathoms, a red rag.
5. At 10 fathoms, a piece of leather with a hole in it.
6. At 13 fathoms, the same as at 3 fathoms.
7. At 15 fathoms, the same as at 5 fathoms.
8. At 17 fathoms, the same as at 7 fathoms.
9. At 20 fathoms, 2 knots.
10. At 25 fathoms, 1 knot.

Leadlines often are marked also at each half fathom over the range of depth used most, and may even have foot markings around the more important depths. Some leadlines are so fixed that the depth may be read at the level of the chains instead of at less than 3 fathoms of water, 1/4 fathom more than 4, and 1/2 fathom more than 4. If bottom is not reached, report "No bottom at."

Breaking Strength of Lines

For the purpose of the USCG License exams, all lines are measured by circumference. To convert use the formula's below.

The basic breaking strength factor for manila line is found by multiplying the square of the circumference of the line by 900 lbs.

(900 lbs. X circumference² = breaking strength)

Circumference = p PI (3.14) X diameter

Example, if you had a piece of ½" manila line and wanted to find the breaking strength, you would first calculate the circumference. (.5 X 3.14 = 1.57) Then using the formula above:

1.57² X 900 = 2,218 pounds of breaking strength

To calculate the breaking strength of synthetic lines you need to add one more factor. As mentioned above, a comparison factor has been developed to compare the breaking strength of synthetics over manila. Since synthetics are stronger than manila an additional multiplication step is added to the formula above.

(comparison factor X 900 lbs. X circumference² = breaking strength)

Comparison chart for synthetic lines.

Line Material	Comparison Factor (greater than manila)
Nylon	2.5
Dacron	2.0
Polypropylene	1.4

Using the example above, the breaking strength of ½" nylon line. First convert the diameter to circumference, then write the formula including the extra comparison factor step.

2.5 X 1.57² X 900 = 5, 546 pounds of breaking strength

Knots and splices will reduce the breaking strength of a line by as much as 50 to 60 percent. The weakest point in the line is the knot or slice, but a splice is stronger than a knot.

Small Boat Anchoring

Here are some basic things to keep in mind when anchoring small boats:
Make sure you have the proper type of anchor such as a danforth, etc.
A three to six foot length of galvanized chain should be attached to the anchor. The chain will stand up to the abrasion of sand, rock or mud on the bottom much better than a fiber line.
A suitable length of nylon anchor line should be attached to the end of the chain (this combination is called the "Rode"). The nylon will stretch under heavy strain cushioning the impact of the waves or wind on the boat and the anchor.
Select an area that offers maximum shelter from wind, current and boat traffic.
Determine depth of water and type of bottom (preferably sand or mud).
Calculate amount of anchor line you will need. General rule: 5 to 7 times as much anchor line as the depth of water plus the distance from the water to where the anchor will attach to the bow. For example, if the water depth is 8 feet and it is 2 feet from the top of the water to your bow cleat, you would multiply 10 feet by 5 to 7 to get the amount of anchor line to put out.
Secure the anchor line to the bow cleat at the point you want it to stop.
Bring the bow of the vessel into the wind or current.
When you get to the spot you want to anchor, place the engine in neutral.
When the boat comes to a stop, slowly lower the anchor. Do not throw the anchor over, as it will tend to foul the anchor.
When all anchor line has been let out, back down on the anchor with engine in idle reverse to help set the anchor.
When anchor is firmly set, use landmarks in relation to the boat to make sure you are not drifting. Check these points often.
Do not anchor by the Stern
Anchoring a small boat by the stern has caused them to capsize and sink. The transom is usually squared off and has less freeboard than the bow. In a current, the force of the water can pull the stern under. The boat is also vulnerable to swamping by wave action. The weight of a motor, fuel tank, or other gear in the stern increases the risk.

WEIGHING ANCHOR

When you are weighing anchor, the same gear must be available on the forecastle as for anchoring. In addition, there is a grapnel (a small four-armed anchor) used to retrieve the anchor buoy. A hose is rigged to wash mud from the anchor and the chain. The windlass is energized and tested, and then the wildcat is engaged. The brake is then released and the wildcat is tested. The
brake is set, and all stoppers but one are cast off. When ready, the report “READY TO HEAVE IN” is made to the bridge.

On the command “HEAVE AROUND,” the brake is taken off and the chain is heaved in enough to take the strain off the stopper. The stopper is then cast off and heaving is resumed. Reports are made to the bridge periodically on the direction the chain is tending, the amount of chain remaining out, and the degree of strain on the chain. If the command were “HEAVE AROUND TO SHORT STAY” the chain would be heaved in just short of breaking out the anchor (pulling the anchor loose from the bottom). When the chain is at short stay, it is reported to the bridge. On the command “HEAVE
AROUND AND UP,” start heaving. When the flukes have broken out, and the crown still rests on the bottom, the report “ANCHOR IS UP AND DOWN” is made.

When the anchor is free of the bottom, it is “AWEIGH”. At this time the anchor ball are hauled down and the ship is now underway. When the anchor comes into view and its condition can be noted, the report “ANCHOR IN SIGHT, CLEAR (or FOUL) ANCHOR” is made. The anchor is reported as housed when the shank is in the hawsepipe and the flukes are against the ship's side. The
anchor buoy is recovered as soon as possible, and a report is made to the bridge when the anchor buoy is on board. The anchor again is made ready for letting go and kept that way until the anchor detail is told to secure it after the ship is outside the harbor or channel.

To secure the anchor for sea, set the brake, then pass the stoppers and even them. Take the brake off, then slacken the chain between the wildcat and the stopper. The brake is set and the wildcat is disengaged. To prevent water from entering the chain locker, secure buckler plates over the chain pipes for those ships with open decks.

Stowing Chain
As the chain comes aboard, it passes along the deck, on metal flash plates, around the wildcat, and down into the chain locker. The chain goes into a locker. The bitter end is secured to a pad eye (ring) on the bulkhead of the chain locker. When working small chain, at least two Seaman should guard against any possible pileup in the chain locker. The chain can be kept from piling up by pushing any accumulation over with a length of 2 by 4 lumber.

Securing
A stockless type anchor is housed in the hawsepipe and it is secured by passing the stoppers. The anchor must be drawn taut in the hawsepipe by the outboard stopper to prevent the flukes from banging the sides. Stoppers are attached to the chain by straddling a link with the tongue and strong back of the pelican hook. The bail is then closed on the pelican hook. The toggle that keeps the pelican hook closed must then be inserted in the tongue of the pelican hook and the lanyard secured around the bail to prevent the
toggle pin from coming out. The turn buckles must be adjusted so each stopper will take an equal strain.

LETTING GO THE ANCHOR

When anchoring and weighing anchor, The exact procedure may vary for making the anchor ready for letting go, but the following should be done. The windlass is tested, the anchor in the hawse is freed, the anchor is walked out if anchoring is in deep water or if the bottom is rocky, the brake is set and the wildcat is disengaged. All but one stopper is taken off and the anchor buoy line is shackled to the chafing chain or pendant. The chain locker is checked for loose gear that may become wedged in the chain pipes or come flying

out. An order then is given to stand clear of the chain. For obvious reasons. At the command “STAND BY” the brake is released and two Seamen-one with a sledgehammer or maul-take stations at the stopper outboard side of the chain.


When the command “LET GO” is given, one Seaman pulls the pin from the stopper tongue.The Seaman with the maul knocks the bail off the tongue of the pelican hook and steps clear. As soon as the Seaman is clear, the brake is fully released. If for some reason the stopper does not fall clear, the chain can still be controlled by the brake.The Seaman tending the anchor buoy tosses it over the side. On the bridge, the anchor ball is hoisted. The anchor buoy indicates the actual position of the anchor to which it is attached by floating above it. If an anchor buoy floats on the surface, it is said to be “watching.” An anchor buoy may fail to watch because its line is too short or the line is fouled in the chain. Before anchoring, the line attaching the buoy to the anchor should be adjusted to a length that is a couple of fathoms greater than the depth of the water at anchorage. This extra length allows for slight fouling, tide variations, or the sinking of the anchor in mud, which might cause the actual depth to be greater than that shown on the navigational chart being used.


The anchor buoy and line must be laid up along, and outboard of, the lifelines. It should be put overboard, well clear of the ship the instant the anchor is let go. An anchor buoy is a time-saver in locating an anchor lost in weighing or one that is slipped in an emergency. Slipping an anchor happens when unexpected circumstances do not permit time to weigh anchor. As soon as the anchor hits bottom the brake is set so the chain will not pile on it. As the ship gains sternway, the brake is released to lay the chain out evenly on the bottom and to control any running movement of the chain. As each chain marking passes the wildcat, the report “(Number) FATHOM ON DECK’ is made to the bridge.


The direction the chain is tending is indicated by pointing the arm and/or reporting “CHAIN TENDING (number) O'CLOCK.”
If the chain tends around the stem, the situation is reported to the bridge. The chain must be allowed to run freely or the sharp bend around the stem may damage a link. Detachable links are particularly susceptible to damage.

ANCHOR CHAIN MARKINGS

Anchor chains are marked as follows:

The detachable links are painted red, white, or blue,

Red for 15 fathoms

White for 30 fathoms

Blue for 45 fathoms

Red for 60 fathoms

White for 75 fathoms and so on.
At the 15-fathom mark, one link on each side of the detachable link is painted white and one turn of wire is wrapped securely around each stud. At the 30-fathom mark, two links on each side of the detachable link are painted white, and two turns of wire are wrapped around the studs of the second links from the detachable link. At 45 fathoms, three links on each side of the detachable link are painted white, and three turns of wire are wrapped around the studs of the last white links. At 60 fathoms, four, white links are on each side, and four turns of wire are wrapped around the last white studs. (And so on for each shot.)
Each link of the entire next to last shot is painted yellow, the last shot is entirely red. These last two shots give warning of the approach of the bitter end ofthe cable.

GROUND TACKLE

Ground tackle is all equipment used in anchoringand mooring with anchors and buoy mooring with chain and appendages. The following are defined as groundtackle: Anchors, Anchor chain, wire rope, synthetic line, or combinations of these materials, when used with anchors. Appendages consisting of connecting shackles or links, detachable links, pear-shaped links, end links, bending shackles, mooring shackles, mooring swivels, detachable-link tool sets, clear hawse pendants, dip ropes, chain stoppers, wrenches for chain stoppers, outboard swivel shots, chain cable jacks, mooring hooks, chain hooks, anchor bars, and anchor buoys.

Ground tackle is one of the most vital parts of a ship's equipment. The vessel's safety frequently depends upon the proper use of this gear. The anchor windlass, equipped with capstan head or gypsy heads, is a part of the ship's ability to handle its ground tackle and use the capstan or gypsy heads in mooring and warping operations.

SHIPS ANCHORS

All anchors are designed to take hold as quickly as possible after they hit bottom. They take hold in one of two ways: either by hooking into the ground with one or both of their sharp flukes or by burying themselves completely. When an anchor is let go in fairly deep water, it strikes the bottom crown first

.

From this position, any drag on the chain causes the flukes, if properly set, to dig into the bottom. As the drag continues, the fluke is forced further into the bottom. If the proper scope of chain is used, the heavier the drag, the deeper the fluke will dig in, developing the full holding power of the anchor.

CHAIN AND WIRE ROPE CABLES

Chain, wire rope cables, or cable composed of both chain and wire rope for use with ships' anchors is a part of the ship's ground tackle. Ground tackle

is the term applied to all equipment used in anchoring. It includes the anchors, their chain or cables,

connecting fittings, and all associated equipment used in anchoring, mooring with anchors, buoy mooring, being towed, or securing or letting go anchors in or from their hawsepipes.

SPLICING WIRE

When splicing wire, always insert the marlinespike against the lay of the wire, and make sure not to shove it through the core. The core must be on the left-hand side of the spike.

Making the first tuck of strands one, two, and three. In the liverpool splice, the first strand goes under three strands, the second strand goes in the same opening but only under two strands, and the third strand goes in the same opening but only under one strand. All of the strands go in at the same point, but come out at different places. At this time, run the spike behind the three strands under which the first three are tucked, but above the first three tucked strands. Holding the marlinespike at a 90-degree angle to the standing part, turn the spike counterclockwise about one fourth of a turn and insert the core through the standing part. This is called "dipping the core." Make sure that the core is inserted under the marlinespike. Pull the core down and run it down into the splice.

Tucking strands four, five, and six. Remember that the core was last between strands three and four and that the strands are numbered clockwise. To tuck strand four, put the marlinespike under the strand to the left of where one, two, and three were tucked through the standing part. Turn the marlinespike counterclockwise around the standing part and tuck the strand. Pull it tight and run it down with the spike. Tuck strand four around the same strand four times. Lock each tuck in place by holding the strand down and running the spike up. Push the marlinespike under the next higher strand on the standing part and tuck strand five around it four times, using the same procedure as with strand four. Then tuck strand six four times. This completes strands four, five, and six.

Running the core up. Burying the core in the center of the splice in the standing part is called "running the core up." Part of the core is run up and the excess is cut off. This is done before each of the first strands is tucked three more times. Run the spike under the same three strands under which number one strand was passed. With the spike in your left hand and the core in your right hand, move the spike to the left and down, and pull up the core with your right hand to tighten it. Then move the spike back to the right. Next run up the core into the center of the splice and cut off the excess.

Tucking strands one, two, and three. To finish the splice, tuck number three, two, and one. Each is tucked three times in a row, ending up with an overall total of four tucks for each. To avoid kinking the strands on the last tucks, insert the spike and run it up the wire. Follow the spike up with the strand, shove it under the spike, and pull taut. Keeping a strain on the strand, work the spike and strand back around and down together. Hold the strand there and work the spike back up the wire. Follow up with the strand and take the last tuck. Work the strand back down and hold it there. Before pulling out the spike, run it back up until the strands of the standing wire bind the working strand in place. Make the second and third tucks with the remaining strands in the same way.

Completing a splice. Remove the wire from the vise, use a hammer to pound the splice into shape, and cut off the ends of the tucking strands close to the splice.

LIFEBOAT DAVITS

"CLICK HERE TO VIEW"

DETACHABLE LINK

Standard Shot
The lengths of chain that are connected to make up the ship's anchor chain are called shots and are made up with an odd number of links. A standard shot is 15 fathoms (90 feet) long. At the time of its manufacture, each shot of the chain usually has a serial number stamped, cut, or cast on the inner side of the end links of each shot. If an end link is lost or removed from a
shot, this identification should be cut or stamped on the inside of the new end link of the altered shot.
Detachable Links
Shots of anchor chain are joined by a detachable link, The detachable link consists of a C-shaped link with two coupling plates that form one side and stud of the link taper pin holds the parts together and is locked in place at the large end by a lead plug. Detachable link parts are not interchangeable, so matching numbers are stamped on the C-link and on each coupling plate to ensure its identification and proper assembly. You will save time and trouble trying to match these parts if you disassemble only one link at a time and clean, slush, and reassemble it before disassembling another.

When you re-assemble a detachable link, make sure the taper pin is seated securely. This is done by driving it in with a punch and a hammer before inserting the lead plug over the large end of the pin. Detachable link toolbox sets contain tools, including spare taper pins and lead plugs, for assembling and disassembling links and detachable end links.

TEMPORARY EYE IN WIRE

A temporary eye may be put in wire by using wire rope clips. A wire rope clip consists of two parts, the U-bolt and the roddle, the part into which the U-bolt is inserted. You should always put the U-bolt over the bitter end and the roddle on the standing part. This protects the live or stress-bearing end of the rope against crushing. The roddle protects the rope and, should always be placed against the live end.
To get maximum strength from the temporary eye splice, use the correct size and number of wire clips, and the correct spacing between them. Size is stamped on the roddle between the two holes. Use the following formula to determine the number of clips: 3 x diameter of wire rope + 1 = number of clips. For example, the number of clips needed for l-inch wire rope is: 3 x 1 + 1 = 4. To determine the correct space between clips, multiply the diameter of the rope by six. For example, the space between clips to be put on 1-inch rope is: 6 x 1 = 6 inches. Measure the space from the center of one clip to the center of the next one. If the calculation for either the number or the space results in a fraction, round off to the next higher whole number.

(Molly Hogan) Splice. Sometimes you have to put a splice in fast, you can do this with the Molly Hogan splice. This splice can be quickly made, but it is limited to about 70 percent of the strength of the wire rope. It should not be used to lift heavy loads. This splice can be used only when working with preformed wire rope. To make a hasty eye splice, personnel should follow these steps:
(1) Using a marlinespike, screwdriver, or, if necessary, a nail, separate the wire rope into two three-strand sections. These sections should be unlaid four times the diameter of the desired eye. If you want a l-foot diameter eye, unlay the sections back 4 feet.
(2) Use the two sections to form a loop of the desired diameter for the eye.
(3) Lay the strands back around each other to form the eye.
(4) After the strands have been laid back around each other and the eye has been formed, seize the wire to complete the splice.

SHORT SPLICE

Splicing is a method of permanently joining the ends of two lines or of bending a line back on itself to form a permanent loop or an eye. If two lines are to be spliced, strands on an end of each line are unlaid and interwoven with those of the standing part of the line. Small stuff can be spliced without a fid, which is a tapering length of hard wood used in splicing larger lines. A knife is used to cut off the ends of the strands.

Short Splice - The short splice is as strong as the rope of which it is made. The short splice increases the diameter of the rope and can be used only where this increase in diameter will not affect operation. The splice is used to repair damaged ropes or where two ropes of the same size are to be joined together permanently. Damaged parts of the rope are cut out and the good sections are spliced. These are the steps

(1) Untwist one end of each line five complete turns. Whip or tape each strand. Bring these strands tightly together so that each strand of one line alternates with a strand of the other line. Put a temporary whipping or tape on the lines where they join to keep them from coming apart. Do this procedure with small lines until you can hold them together while you tuck. 2) Starting with either line, tuck a round of strands in the other line. Then, using the strands of the other line, tuck a round in the first line. Make sure to tuck in one direction, the reverse and tuck in the other direction. When making a round of tucks, regardless of the direction, face where the lines are butted so you will always tuck from right to left. Pull each strand as to tighten the center of the splice.
(3) Tuck two more rounds in each direction. After tucking in one direction and reversing and tucking in the other direction, pull the strands as required to strengthen the center of the splice. When finished with three rounds of tucks in each direction, cut off any excess length on the strands.

NOTE: To have a smoother splice, cut off one-third of the circumference of each strand before making the second round of tucks and another third before the third round.
(4) When the splice is completed, cut off the excess strands as before. Lay the splice on the deck and roll it with your foot or hands to smooth out and tighten the splice.

WHIPPING A LINE

WHIPPING LINE. Never cut a line or leave the end of a line dangling loose without a whipping to prevent it from unlaying. A line without whipping will unlay of its own accord. Whenever you cut a line or hawser whippings should be put on first, on each side of the cut. To prevent fraying, a temporary or plain whipping can be put on with any type cordage, even rope yarn.

" TEMPORARY WHIPPING "

To make a temporary whipping, you should:

Lay the end of the whipping along the line and bind it down with three or four round turns.

Lay the other end the opposite way.

Bind this end with a bight of the whipping.

Take a couple more turns.

Take the bitter of the whipping and pull it tight.

A permanent whipping, is put on to stay. One way to make a permanent whipping is with a sewing palm and needle. Sewing palms are made for both right and left handed people. The width of the permanent whipping should equal the diameter of the line. Two whippings are best. The space between the two whippings should be six times the width of the first whipping. When putting on permanent whipping, you should:

Put the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands on the other side.

Wind the turns toward the bitter end. (The number of turns or the width of the whipping will depend on the diameter of the line.)

Push the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands again.

Go up and down between strands to put a cross-seizing between each pair of strands.

Pull each cross-seizing tight before taking the next one.

" PERMANENT WHIPPING "

Make sure the thread comes out through the middle of a strand the last time it is pushed through, so that the strand will hold the end of the twine after it is knotted and cut.

HANDLING WIRE ROPE

There are different handling methods for wire rope. Here are some methods.

Kinking - When loose wire rope is handled, small loops sometimes form in the slack portion of the rope. If you apply tension to the rope while these loops are in position, the loops will not straighten out but will get sharp kinks, resulting in unlaying of the rope. You need to straighten these loops out of the rope before applying a load. After a kink has formed in wire rope, it is impossible to remove it, and the strength of the rope is damaged at the point where the kink occurs.

Unreeling - When removing wire rope from a reel or coil, you should be sure to rotate the reel or coil. If the reel is mounted, the wire rope may be unwound by holding the end and walking away from the reel. If a wire rope is in a small coil, you can stand the coil on end and roll it along the deck, barge, wharf, or ground. Remove any loops that may form, although rotating the reel or coil avoids causing loops to form.

Seizing - You should seize all wire rope before cutting it. If the ends of the rope are not secured, the balance of tension is disturbed. Maximum use cannot be made on wire rope when some strands carry a greater load than others.

Annealed wire is recommended for the seizing. You should tighten the turns of the annealed wire rope so that they do not have to tighten them when the ends are being twisted together. The ends should be twisted together at one end of the seizing so that the completed twist can be tapped into the groove between two strands where it is less likely to be knocked off.
There are three formulas for determining the number and length of seizings and the space between them. When a calculation results in a fraction, use the next larger whole number. These formulas are based on a 3/4-inch diameter wire rope.
The number of seizings required equals about three times the diameter of the rope. For example: 3 x 3/4 = 2 1/4 or 3 seizings. Because the rope will be cut, six seizings are required so that there will be three on each rope end after the cut.
The length of a seizing should be equal to the diameter of the rope. For example: 1 x 3/4 = 3/4 or 1 inch. The seizings should be spaced a distance apart equal to twice the diameter. For example: 2 x 3/4 = 1 1/2 or 2 inches apart.

Cutting - Wire rope can be cut with a wire rope cutter, a cold chisel, a hacksaw, bolt clippers, or an oxyacetylene cutting torch. To seize the wire rope, insert it into the cutter with the blade between the two central seizings, close the locking device, then close the valve on the cutter. The handle should be pumped to build up enough pressure to force the blade through the rope.

Use bolt cutters on wire rope of small diameter. Use the oxyacetylene torch on wire of any diameter. Cutting with the hacksaw and cold chisel is slower than cutting with the other tools and equipment.

Coiling - You may need to take a length of wire rope from a reel and coil it down before using it. Small loops or twists will form if the wire rope is coiled in a direction opposite to the lay. To avoid loops, you should coil right lay wire rope clockwise and left lay wire rope counterclockwise. When a loop forms in the wire, they should put a back turn.

"Putting a back turn in wire rope"

Size of Sheaves and Drums - When a wire is bent over a sheave or drum, two things could happen. Each wire is bent to conform to the curvature, and the wires slide against each other lengthwise because the inside arc of the rope against the sheave or drum is shorter than the outside arc. The smaller the diameter of the sheave or drum, the greater the bending and sliding. You should keep this bending and moving of wires to a minimum to reduce wear. The minimum recommended sheave and drum diameter is 20 times the diameter of the rope. For example, for 5/8-inch rope: 20 x 5/8 = 12 1/2-inch sheave. If a 12 1/2-inch sheave is not on hand, you should use the next larger size, don't use a smaller size.

Lubrication - Wire rope is lubricated as it is manufactured. The lubricant generally does not last throughout the life of the rope, which makes relubrication necessary. Crater "C" compound is recommended, but personnel may use oil on hand rather than delay lubrication. Crater "C" compound should be heated before it is put on the wire rope. You can use a brush if to apply lubricant. If a brush is not available, try a sponge or cloth, but look out for fishhooks or broken wires.

Reversing Ends - It is good to reverse or cut back ends to get more service from wire rope. The wear and fatigue on a rope is more severe at certain points than at others. Reversing distributes stronger parts of the rope to the points getting wear and fatigue. To reverse ends, remove the drum end, put it in the attachment, and then fasten the end taken from the attachment to the drum. Cutting back the ends has the same effect, but not as much change is involved. In reversing ends, you should cut off short lengths of both ends to remove the sections with the greatest wear.

Storing - Wire rope should be coiled on a spool for storage. Its grade, size, and length are on a tag attached to the rope or spool. Wire rope should be stored in a dry place to reduce corrosion. Don't store it with chemicals or where chemicals have been stored because chemicals and their fumes can attack the metal. Always clean and lubricate wire rope before storing it.

Cleaning - You can remove most of the dirt or grit on a used wire rope by scraping or steaming. Rust should be removed at regular intervals by wire brushing. Clean your rope before lubricating to remove foreign material and old lubricant from the between the strands and from the spaces between the outer wires. This lets the lubricant to enter the rope.

WIRE ROPE

Standard wire rope has six strands. Classifications group wire ropes according to weight, flexibility, and strength. The 6 x 19 classification has 6 strands and 19 wires per strand. The 6 x 37 classification has 6 strands and 37 wires in each strand. Rope of numerous small wires is more flexible, but less resistant to external abrasion. Wire rope of a smaller number of larger wires is less flexible but more resistant to abrasion. Two ropes of the same size have the same strength even though, for example, one is 6 x 19 and the other is 6 x 37.

In most wire rope the wires and strands are preformed. Preforming means presetting wires in the strands into a permanent corkscrew form which they will have in the completed rope. Preformed wire rope does not have the internal stresses found in nonpreformed wire rope, does not untwist as nonpreformed wire rope, and is more flexible.
Lay means the direction of winding of the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope. Both may be wound in the same direction or in opposite directions.
In regular lay, the strands and wires are wound in opposite directions. Most common is the right regular lay which the strands are wound right and the wires wound left. This lay is used in marine operations.
In lang lay, the strands and wires are wound in the same direction. This type of wire rope is used on the blades of bulldozers and scrapers.

MEASUREMENT. Wire rope is usually measured by its diameter. To measure wire rope correctly, you should place it in the caliper so that the outermost points of the strands will be touching the jaws of the caliper. Here are some common causes of wire rope failures.
Using rope of incorrect size, construction, or grade.
Allowing rope to drag over obstacles.
Operating over sheaves and drums of inadequate size.
Overwinding or crosswinding on drums.
Operating over sheaves and drums that are out of alignment.
Permitting rope to jump sheaves.
Subjecting rope to moisture or acid fumes.
Permitting rope to untwist.
Using kinked rope.
You should inspect weak points and points of stress. Worn or weak spots show up as shiny, flat spots on the wires. If the outer wires have been reduced in diameter by one-half, the wire rope is unsafe.
Inspect broken wires, since they show where the greatest stress occurs. If individual wires are broken next to each other, unequal load distribution at this point will make the rope unsafe. Broken wires are called fishhooks. To determine the extent of damage to the wire rope, you can slide a finger along one strand of wire for one complete turn, equal to the length of one wire rope lay. Next, count the number of fishhooks. If six or more fishhooks are found, the wire rope is unsafe and should be replaced.

REEVING TACKLES

When reeving tackles reeve each type differently. If a tackle is rove improperly, too much friction and possible binding of the falls can result when lifting or lowering a load, creating a safety hazard. It is important to use the proper method of reeving each type of tackle up to and including a threefold purchase.

In reeving triple blocks, you should put hoisting strain at the center of the blocks to prevent them from inclining under the strain. If the blocks do incline, the rope will drag across the edges of the sheaves and the shell of the block and cut the fibers.

Single whip tackle offers no mechanical advantage and runner tackle has a 2 to 1 mechanical advantage.

GUN TACKLE - Place two single-sheave blocks about 3 feet apart with the hooks or straps facing outboard and both blocks in the same position, either on their face or cheek. Next, they should run the line through the first and second block, then splice it to the becket of the first block. Gun tackle has a 2 to 1 mechanical advantage.

LUFF TACKLE - Position one single- and one double-sheave block the same as the gun tackle. Run the line through one of the sheaves of the double-sheave block first and then to the sheave of the single-sheave block. Next, run the line through the other sheave of the double-sheave block and splice the line to the becket of the single-sheave block. This tackle offers a 3 to 1 mechanical advantage.

TWOFOLD PURCHASE - Position two double-sheave blocks in the same manner as with the luff tackle. Reeve the line through the top or bottom block, stay in sequence, and never cross from one side to the other. After reeving the tackle, splice the standing line to the becket. Twofold tackle has a 4 to 1 mechanical advantage.

DOUBLE LUFF TACKLE - Obtain a double- and a triple-sheave block. Place the blocks 3 feet apart with the hooks or straps facing outboard and position the blocks so that one is face down and the other cheek down. When reeving a tackle that has one block with more sheaves than the other, always start with the block with the most sheaves. In this case, start reeving through the center sheave, keeping the line parallel. Never cross from one side to the other. Double luff tackle has a 5 to 1 mechanical advantage.

THREEFOLD PURCHASE - Place two triple-sheave blocks 3 feet apart, with the hooks or straps facing outboard, positioning the blocks so one is face down and the other is cheek down. Start reeving in the center sheave of one block and finish in the center sheave on the other. Then splice the standing part to the becket. This tackle offers a 6 to 1 mechanical advantage.

TYPES OF TACKLES

A block with a line led over the sheave makes applying power by changing the direction of the pull easier. Used with line and another block, it becomes a tackle and increases the power applied on the hauling part. Tackles are designated according to their uses and the number of sheaves in the blocks that are used to make the tackle. The various types of tackle are rove with different size blocks and all have a limited lifting capacity depending on the number of sheaves, the size blocks and the size line used. The tackles are named for their use or from their makeup.
A single whip tackle consists of a single fixed block with a line passed over its sheave. This tackle has no mechanical advantage.
The gun tackle, named for its use on old sailing ships to haul the cannons back to their gun port after firing, consists of one single-sheave fixed block and one single-sheave movable block.
The luff tackle is made up of one double-sheaved block and one single-sheaved block.
The twofold purchase is made up of two double-sheaved blocks.
The double luff tackle is made up of one double-sheaved block and one triple-sheaved block.
The threefold purchase is made up of two three-sheaved blocks.

TYPES OF BLOCKS

There are several different types of blocks, each with a different use. Wooden and metal blocks are of the

same design except for the head or heel block which is only metal.

The single-sheave block has only one sheave and may or may not have a hook or becket.

The multiple-sheave block contains two or more sheaves. It may or may not have a hook or becket.

A fixed-hook block is a single or multiple sheave block with a stationary hook attached to the top of the strap.

A swivel-hook block is a single or multiple sheave block with a swivel hook that allows the lock to move in the direction of the load.

The snatch block has a hinged cheek on one side and differs from all other blocks. The advantage of a snatch block over the other types is that it can be opened and a bight of line placed over the sheave without passing the end of the line through the swallow. The snatch block also has a swivel hook. The function of the snatch block is to change the direction of the load or pull.

The head or heel block has a cast metal shell, roller bearings, and a grease fitting in the sheave pin. The cargo runner can pass over these blocks at the head and heel of the cargo boom. These high-speed blocks must be lubricated every time they are used.

Blocks are named for the purpose for which they are used, the places they occupy, or from a particular shape or type of construction. According to the number of sheaves, blocks are designated as single, double, or triple. A traveling block is attached to the load being lifted and moves as lifting occurs. A standing block is fixed to a stationary object.

Every tackle system contains a fixed block attached to some solid support and may have a traveling block attached to the load. The single rope leaving the tackle system is called the fall line. Personnel apply the pulling force to the fall line which may be led through a leading block.

SIZE OF BLOCKS - Users can determine the size of blocks by measuring the length of the cheek in inches. Blocks are designed for use with a specific line size. Bending line over a sheave that is too small causes distortion and strain, with the line wearing on the shell. You can use line smaller than that designated for a sheave with no damage, but should don't use line of a larger size.

To determine the size wooden block to use with line of a known size, you can use these formulas:

3 x circumference of line = shell size, 2 x circumference of line = sheave size

WOODEN BLOCKS

WOODEN BLOCKS. A wooden block, consists of one or more sheaves (pulleys). Each block has one or more steel straps which strengthen the block and support the sheave pin. Personnel may suspend the block or apply a load by means of a hook or shackle inserted in the top of the strap. The strap may continue through the block and form a projection, called the becket, to attach another line. The becket usually has a thimble to prevent chafing of the line. The front of the block is called its face and the sides of the shell are called cheeks. The opening between the top of the sheave and the block where the line is passed through the block is called the swallow. The breech is the opening between the bottom of the sheave and the block and serves no definite purpose. Line is never passed through the breech of a block except for a small tail line used to keep the block from bouncing on the deck. The entire wooden portion of a block is called the shell, it protects the sheave and line.

SPANISH BOWLINE

The Spanish bowline can be used wherever it is desirable to have two eyes in the line. Its primary use, is a substitute for the boatswain's chair. Many prefer it to the French bowline because the bights are set and will not slip back and forth when the weight is shifted.
To tie this knot, take a bight and bend it back away from you, forming two bights. Then lap one bight over the other. Next, grab the two bights where they cross, and fold this part down toward you, forming four bights. Next, pass the bight on your lower left through the upper bight on your left. Next pass the bight on your lower right through the upper bight on your right.

Adjust and pull tight, this will take some practice until you get the size of your bights the desired size.